Ward's Ap Biology Lab # 5 Answers

Back to the synagogue

La storia dei settanta contadini pugliesi che negli anni Venti diventarono ebrei e nel 1948 emigrarono in Israele

Sannicandro, oggi San Nicandro, è una cittadina pugliese, un paesotto del Gargano that has little to urban to date, let alone the end of the twenties of the last century, when it began an extraordinary adventure, that took some seventy of its inhabitants to become Jews to wait many years to be able to formally convert ' Judaism and then to move to Israel immediately after 1948. They were, subsequent to the First World War, years of political unrest and religious paths of each type in the south too, profoundly changed by the migration of her children in America. Widespread and were active in proselytizing Protestants, especially the Pentecostal movements. The protagonist of this story, only in the long history of relations between the Christian and Jewish world, is an illiterate laborer, Donato Manduzio, returned disabled from the trenches of the Great War. In the hospital he learned to read and write, and almost forced into immobility, spends his time immersed in reading. Readings varied, often haphazard. When a neighbor gave him a Bible had to be a Pentecostal preacher - a Bible in Italian, translated by Luther - Manduzio you put out completely, finding that the biblical text did not say or the Trinity or the Pope or Jesus and that there It is said instead of a people lost in distant lands to which God appeared on the mountain by delivering the "true faith." Around him are beginning to gather friends, relatives, neighbors. The group discusses the words lette da Manduzio, con ingenuità e curiosità, senza preconcetti.

E’ la prima volta che hanno l’occasione di affrontare direttamente la parola di Dio. A poco a poco, da semplice lettore, Manduzio diviene un interprete, pervaso di messianesimo e di tensioni mistiche, mentre i suoi seguaci imparano a leggere e a scrivere.

Di fronte a questa grave violazione religiosa – la lettura del testo sacro in italiano – intervenne il prete del luogo. Non solo però non riuscì a spuntarla, ma perse anche il suo sacrestano, che si unì al gruppo di Manduzio. Si fecero vivi anche i luterani, convinti di far proseliti e di strappare fedeli ai papisti. Ma, if the reading of the Bible and his followers had convinced Manduzio that Catholicism was not much to do with that we find in the text, but he had not driven in the direction of a conversion to Protestantism. They had come to the conclusion that the true faith was Jewish, as was exposed in the biblical text, and proclaimed themselves Jews. They were convinced, moreover, that the Jews no longer existed, which have been supplanted by the Christians. In short, they firmly believe to be the only Jews on the face of the earth. They began to observe the Sabbath, to keep away from the Catholic rites, to take those hard to know who learned Hebrew studying Leviticus.

They were obviously very far from the Jewish ritual itself, did not know the Talmud, and their only reference point was the biblical text. But when he accidentally came to know that the Jews on the face of the earth, and even in Italy, there were still many, and that if they wanted to be really Jews had contact with them, they decided to write to Rome and to inform the Chief Rabbi the existence of their community, asking to be converted. Twice, their letters go unanswered, then finally received response. David Lawn, the chief rabbi of the Community of Rome, urged them to wait three years to reflect on the past who wanted to do before tackling the problem conversion. Meanwhile, Rome sent their biblical texts, prayer books and shawls. It was 1934.

Slowly, the country became accustomed to the presence of a group of "Jews" who eat according to Jewish rules, celebrated the Jewish holidays, they read the Bible, praying and singing religious songs created. Rather were internal tensions, so much so that they formed two communities in conflict, that remained around Manduzio founded by a cobbler and bricks. But the times were becoming increasingly bleak. The Protestants were subject to many restrictions, and in 1937 the followers of Manduzio were warned and fined heavily by the police. It was not anti-Semitism, but the suspicion is that their anti-fascist meetings hiding activities. On that occasion, the Union of Jewish Communities intervened to clarify the situation. The President went to Raffaele Cantoni Sannicandro to visit these strange Jews, bringing them the gift of books.

In 1938, the past three years, Manduzio finally received a letter from the rabbinate urged them, for their own good, to have more patience: time was not very favorable to the Jews, better wait for the storm to pass the racial laws. At the time, it was not advisable to convert to Judaism. A decision to Sannicandro was interpreted as a refusal, and very painful. In 1940, con l’entrata in guerra, il Sud si riempì di campi di internamento per ebrei italiani e soprattutto stranieri, Mai, dopo il 1540, data dell’espulsione definitiva degli ebrei dal meridione d’Italia, queste zone avevano visto tanti ebrei. A soli cinquanta chilometri da Sannicandro, a Manfredonia, fu creato un campo di internamento, dove furono rinchiusi molti ebrei tedeschi, ma a Sannicandro la vita continuava a scorrere senza troppe tensioni. Soltanto poco prima dell’8 settembre, i tedeschi, che si avviavano ormai ad abbandonare la zona incalzati dall’avanzata alleata, si fermarono in paese a chiedere dove fossero gli “ebrei”, ma il paese intero li protesse.

was liberation, with the Anglo-Americans that were circulating everywhere handing out chocolate and cigarettes. It was on this occasion that the Jews of Sannicandro discovered in disbelief and awe, the star of David on the trucks. It was the famous Jewish Brigade, composed of Jews of Palestine enlisted in the British army. It will be an officer of the Brigade, Phinn Lapide, to forge stronger relationships with them, reading cards Manduzio, his diary records that he told those thirteen years, from 1930 onwards, which had formed the small community . In 1953 he wrote a book about their story, "The Prophet of San Nicandro", translated into Italian in 1958 under the title "Moses in Puglia "(Longanesi). Among those intrigued by its history, went to visit Manduzio, there was also, in March 1944, a British army officer. He was an Italian jew who came from Palestine and was engaged in a mission to help the Jews still under Nazi occupation. His name was Enzo Sereni, and is today considered one of the founding fathers of the state of Israel.

In May of that year, will make his latest mission, dropping in Tuscany, where he will be arrested by the Nazis, then to die in Dachau. After the war, the Jews of Sannicandro finally get converted, not without further difficulties. Conversion, an unprecedented mass conversion of seventy people, including men, women and children, took place in August 1946. Donato Manduzio, strongly opposed to leave his land for the new Jewish state, will shut down in March 1948. Between 1948 and 1950, his followers will do all the aliyah to Israel, settling near Tzfat, and Sannicandro are only five Jews. Currently, there are fifty and maintain the life of a small community.

But what was the cultural context in which the conversion of Sannicandro was born? What memories of the Jewish presence in southern talia, centuries after the expulsion? In the Dark Ages, Jews, Italians were mainly allocated to the south, on the coast.

Apulia was particularly important here in those centuries, in the dense populated Jewish communities that had been introduced to the Babylonian Talmud and had, apparently, made the same as a community. This world was over at the beginning of the second millennium, and the remaining Jews in the South had been converted by force or exiled under Angevin rule. Three hundred synagogues in Apulia had been turned into churches. But this was not the memory behind the conversion. More recently was the memory of the conversion and exile that accompanied the beginning of English rule, and especially the phenomenon of marranesimo: the criptogiudaismo converted to force, or descendants of converts, who continue to maintain a hidden beliefs, rites and customs of the Jews harshly persecuted by the Inquisition, sent to the stake if caught. The south of Italy is full of reminiscences of family members (names, customs, special) that traced a distant Jewish origin lost in the generations.

Manduzio not look at this memory. He reads the Bible, does not know the Talmud, Mishnah, rabbinic culture. His Judaism, that of his followers, comes directly from the biblical text. But on something he had to engage. We think first of all, the wide spread of Protestantism, with which the same Manduzio, first approach to Judaism, had come into contact, the practice of a direct reading of the biblical text of Protestant origin, although there are different conclusions that he drew Manduzio. Also, remember that there were in southern Italy, before this, cases of Catholics, not descendants of converted Jews, the Jews discovered that reading the texts. "Old Christians", to put it using the language of the time, who wanted to become Jews to be rooted more or less distant, but out of conviction. A few years ago a historian, Giovanni Romeo, has some traits from oblivion.

They ended badly, of course: at the stake, in prison, suicide, considered crazy. Fascinating figures of people or any of mystics and intellectuals, such as Giulio Cesare Gambardella, a young Neapolitan plagued by a physical deformity and considered "fool's brain", tortured and condemned to perpetual imprisonment in 1579, as John Leonard Cats, too Naples, Doctor of Law, declared insane, especially as the eighth in Puglia Arimini, philosopher and theologian, who will be executed after a trial in Rome where he'd been "completely unbelieving dela Christian faith" and believing instead in "one God in heaven costume Jews." Another interesting case is that of Scipio Valley, also home Puglia, a young man caught in Naples in 1605 decided to reject Catholicism and to be jew, reaching groped for circumcised. Reported to the hospital by her confessor, died before the inquisitorial process is accomplished. In his statements, as well as the exaltation of monotheism, on a messianic spirit. These cases, although sporadic, can reveal how the Jews have played an important role as a reference point of a religious dissent is particularly common in the south in the early decades of English rule. Same as the flight of Giordano Bruno and Tommaso Campanella of the conspiracy, at a time of reflux of the pressures of Protestant reformers.

Finally, there is another matrix that deserves to be analyzed in the search for a conversion Sannicandro: the peasant culture. A strong will to learn, a desire to bring high culture to the test of its criticism, stubbornness, and if we are also a lot of confusion, and the idea that learning will enable it to decide. There is a strong sense of their own capacity to understand that an illiterate learn to read and the teacher and almost a prophet. Like Campanella, Manduzio also had soaked eyes on oil lamps and the culture was put before everything else. A common thread unites the various aspects of this bizarre world of heterodox culture of Southern Italy, in all forms it takes, as in the God who refuses to accept that.

Anna Foa

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The feast of St. Martin in Venice

Yesterday was the Summer of St. Martin, a day long awaited by the children of Venice, celebrated since the early hours of the day, in their way pleasantly noisy. The festival is documented by us Fausto , via his blog very well cared for, Alloggi Barbaria blogspot.

At his prior permission disclose it in full, including photographs, which, for reasons due to my lack of technical skills, find a location diversa rispetto alla fonte originaria. Mi riferisco volentieri a questa festa fanciullesca veneziana, perchè non mi risulta sia altrettanto festeggiata qui da noi "sul continente". Ma i blogger più attempati forse ricorderanno se mai durante la loro fancillezza avvenivano feste del genere nei loro rispettivi paesi o città. In particolare mi aspetterei racconti da parte di Ambra e di Marcello, i quali, come suppongo, dovrebbero averne in abbondanza. Dal canto mio, e anche se purtroppo è riferito alla settimana santa, poichè di San Martino non ricordo di nulla, ho lasciato ampia testimonianza nel commentario di Fausto, di quanto avveniva di festosamente rumoroso dalle mie parti, al tempo in cui ero fanciullo.

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Post di Fausto

La Festa di San Martino a Venezia si è tenuta regolarmente come ogni anno, l'11 novembre. La Festa di San Martino è molto amata dai bambini che, secondo una secolare tradizione, girano per i vari negozi con mestoli e coperchi di pentole "minacciando" di cantare la filastrocca di San Martino (e battendo i loro attrezzi con vigore) se non gli viene dato qualche moneta o caramella. I titolari dei negozi cedono fin troppo facilmente a simili "ricatti", anche perchè, se i bambini non ricevono dei dolci, insistono con la canzoncina fino a perdere il fiato. A dire il vero la Festa di San Martino anche a Venezia ha risentito del momento economico not exciting, then the children have received many more fresh coins. As mentioned the Feast of San Martino is celebrated only by children. There has been so since the morning and going to school (accompanied by their teachers) on the streets of Venice in search of normal shops or bakeries are willing to pay the duty at the party. In the afternoon and into the evening instead of groups of children were smaller but more noisy, accompanied by their parents are very happy to renew their children through the customs of this ancient festival. La Festa di San Martino was celebrated in the Campo dei Frari, with an impressive gathering of adults and children illuminated by colored lamps. Again in the evening pastries and bars in the city exposed in their windows the typical sweet of San Martino, some as large as half display (see photo below). At the end of the day the children went home exhausted but happy. In their pockets many cakes and sweets and some money, as tradition dictates.

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L 'investiture as a knight of St. Stephen

From the blog

http://narrare-dimammi.blogspot.com/2009/10/ the-process-per-linvestitura-di.html

The procedure for the investiture of a knight St. Stephen's.
From the book "The Knights of Arezzo, Cortona and Sansepolcro members of the Sacred Military Order of St. Stephen Pope and Martyr "(published by ETS) of prof. Bruno Casini who examined the documents of the State of Pisa and from the archive of the order of St. Stephen.

"Giovanni Battista Lambardi of Arezzo, descended from the father, the son of Bernardino Lambardi Fabiano and M. Camilla Bacci and Jerome, his mother's side, by M. Beatrice, daughter of Alexander Guasparri Tondinelli and M. Marietta Mark Fierabracci.
That John the Baptist appeared before the vicar general of the Bishop of Arezzo, to clarity about the nobility of his ancestors produced the chapters, the certificates and badges in color, and appointed as witnesses to be examined the following persons: Giovanni Battista Riccomanni, Donato di Gregorio Chiaromanni (note 7 followed by other witnesses)
On February 9, 1597 the process took place for provanze of nobility before the vicar-general and said the rider Mannini Angelo of Arezzo, drafted the instrument Valentino Andrea Subbiano, notary of the Religion of St. Stefano.
The Twelve Knights of the board, in the information sent to Duke February 25, 1597, explained to him that the Council had seen and considered as the supplicant had produced and had found that he, with the deposed witness and faith public had felt that descended to the father, mother and father ava Lambardi Tondinelli by Bacci and Arezzo, all noble families and disabled to the high honor to gonfalierato for maternal ancestress, by Fierabracci, family already admitted to the Priory and then extinguished , pleading that he had the age of 20 years. By a rescript
Grand Duchy of 16 December 1598 was prepared, "the Diaseli Habito and sailing with this"
On December 21, 1598, that John the Baptist took the dress of a knight-soldier 's Order of St. Stephen in Pisa At the age of 20 years, at the hands of the rider Silvio Piccolimini, much contested. His funeral was celebrated on August 19, 1650. "

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Marco d'Aviano Part 2

Marco d'Aviano, holy and forgotten hero
His Barbarossa is in theaters, and Renzo Martinelli has long been committed to the preparation of his next film: Marco d'Aviano . It should be a movie all the more spectacular of Barbarossa, because if this had to rebuild the twelfth-century Milan, Marco d'Aviano in Vienna will have to reconstruct the order of 600. To make the colossal film, then there should be the main scene, which should cover the siege of Vienna, which began July 12, 1683 with the arrival of the first Turkish vanguard in the suburbs of Vienna. The consistency of the army turkish, full, has been variously estimated at from 200,000 to 300,000 men, but is more likely to be around 140,000. Assuming this figure to be good, would still be twice the coalition forces Austrian, Swabian, Bavarian, Saxon, Franconian assommanti to 70,000 men, of whom 30,000, well trained, came from Poland alone, led by King John Sobieski. Preparations for battle were undertaken on the evening of September 11 the next day, Sunday, September 12, 1683, took place on what is remembered as the Battle of Vienna , a battle whose outcome would depend on the future course of European history . In the case of Ottoman victory, in fact, Europe sarebbe stata islamizzata di forza. E secondo il terribile progetto del gran visir Kara Mustafà, progetto che in Europa si credeva o si pensava di conoscere, questi aveva in mente di "espugnare Vienna e Praga, frantumare le forze di Luigi XIV sul Reno, e marciare su Roma per fare di San Pietro le scuderie del sultano".
Con un impiego di forze di quella proporzione, Vienna - assediata e parzialmente svuotata da suoi abitanti, datisi a precipitosa fuga nell'imminenza del pericolo - secondo quel progetto turco, sarebbe dovuta capitolare in pochi giorni. Invece resistette ad oltranza, dando così modo alla coalizione amica di organizzare gli aiuti. I viennesi sentivano che la posta in gioco era troppo grande: Vienna era considerata l'ultimo baluardo contro advanced irrepressible Islam, which had culminated in 1453 with the conquest of Constantinople (now Istanbul) by the Ottoman Turks; company that ended the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire.
The director will also be able to represent the terror suffered by the people of Vienna during the terrible two months of the siege, "the ramparts were not fortified and equipped, the guns were scarce, while from the walls of the besieged Muslim could see the tents that stretched out of sight in the area. " The Terror of Vienna was also fueled by the stories of what happened 112 years earlier, in 1571, the island of Cyprus, taken from the assault of the Turks to the Venetians. It happened a terrifying fact of unprecedented cruelty and brutality, now downplayed and virtually ignored the story, a story which I refer to reading through Wikipedia, the siege of Famagusta on and the horrible murder of his Captain General Marcantonio Bragadin , as well as Governor of Cyprus (the fact is well described in the book by Christopher Catherwood, "The Folly of Churchill, the invention of Iraq." These, in detail, he described the atrocities committed by the Ottoman Turks who occupied the ' island, and the horrible end that was the subject of numerous stock Bragadin, went there with him in full regalia, as they went to a party, to sign the surrender and hand over the keys to the city. They were completely helpless, as a sign of peace). That fact should be borne in mind in future on film Martinelli Marco d'Aviano, to make viewers understand the reason for such a great fear of the Ottoman Turks. Famagusta, after 22 years of uninterrupted siege - perhaps the longest in history - had to capitulate to hardship and hunger, nor the residents they were able to count on external aid, or the mother's home in Venice, because it engaged in preparations for what would eventually be the battle, which has great influence on the subsequent course of history: the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571.
A Father Marco d'Aviano should be credited more per la vittoria delle forze cristiane su quelle islamiche nello scontro decisivo di Vienna; lo si può intuire anche leggendo la sua biografia, unita agli atti per il processo di canonizzazione ( biografia di padre Marco d'Aviano ) . Eppure, nelle enciclopedie, nei libri di storia delle scuole superiori, almeno quelli più retrodatati, Marco d'Aviano non viene nemmeno citato. Completamente trascurato. Ne è riprova il fatto che, chiedendo in giro chi sia Marco d'Aviano, pochi o nessuno saprà rispondere; dovrebbe essere almeno conosciuto in Polonia e in Austria, sua patria adottiva, e soprattutto a Vienna, dove è sepolto, vicino ai reali d'Austria. Una rivalutazione, una riscoperta del beato, da quelle parti, however, seems to have occurred only recently, first, there also seems to have been forgotten. In fact, when in 1883 "is solemnly celebrated the second anniversary of the liberation of Vienna, in speeches and in commemoration of the fact we do not even remember a certain Father Marco d'Aviano, who had been, see combination! - One of the causes determinants of the great victory which had saved Vienna, the empire, Europe. Given the time and place, you can not just say that it was a random silence. " And it was perhaps also for the veneration of which would likely benefit in Poland, Pope Wojtyla, the Polish pope, before he died, he wanted beatified, Sunday, April 27, 2003, closing the lungo processo di beatificazione e canonizzazione . Durato 300 anni, era iniziato nel 1703, dopo appena 4 anni dalla morte di padre Marco d'Aviano ( beatificazione di padre Marco d'Aviano ).

Marco d'Aviano, una vita da santo eroico, tutta spesa per la conservazione dell'indipendenza politica e religiosa dell'Europa dall'invadenza islamica turca ottomana. Santa, la prima parte della vita, anche per i miracoli documentati, che gli sono stati attribuiti; defatigante la seconda, per i numerosi viaggi - molto disagevoli per quell'epoca - compiuti per raggiungere le corti d'Europa, ove era molto richiesta la presenza di un frate già in odore di santità; santa ed eroica la terza ed ultima parte of life for its ubiquitous presence on the battlefield, from Vienna, Buda, Belgrade, to support and encourage the soldiers, urging them to fight heroically for the sake of Christianity, and with it Europe.

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Related Post: Bragadin Marcantonio, Marco d'Aviano , Knights of St. Stephen

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Blog by Marcello Mammi http://narrare-dimammi.blogspot .com/2009/10/primo-ottobre-1561-il-sacro-militare.html

October 1561 First

The Sacred Military Order of St. Stephen

viene istituito da Cosimo I dei Medici Granduca di Toscana.

Lo scopo principale era costituire una flotta navale e da sbarco, per la difesa delle coste e dei territori toscani ed in generale italici, dai pirati barbareschi, turchi, mori e quindi dall’Islam.
“..ad Dei laudem et gloriam ac fidei Catholicae defensionem marisque Mediterranei ab infedelibus custodiam et tuitionem…” .
Il papa Pio IV con la solenne Bolla "His, quae Pro Religionis Propagatione" del 1 febbraio 1562 ne decretò la costituzione " perpetuo erigimus ac instituimus " e ne approvò status " statuimus ac ordinamus .
The Order was later consecrated March 15, 1562 in the Primate of Pisa, by the Apostolic Nuncio Monsignor Cornaro.Inizialmente the seat had to be in Cosmopolis, the current Portoferraio Island of Elba. For logistical reasons was the favorite port of Livorno and Pisa for the fleet.

The order was dedicated to St. Stephen Pope and Martyr (254-257 AD) and was placed under the Benedictine rule, the choice of this saint is due to the fact that, on August 2, the anniversary of his party, Cosimo I scored two important victories in Montemurlo in 1537 ( against Strozzi) and Scannagallo in 1554 against Siena.
The main charges were of the order and the Grand Master, who was the Grand Duke, the twelve knights of the Supreme Council, the Commander more, alter ego of the duke, who commanded the most questionable landing troops and assaults, Admiral general who was commander of the galleys of the fleet and led into battle, the great hospitality and the prior convent. The order included three kinds of riders: the soldiers, clergy and serventi.L 'access order was highly selective and elitist, it was necessary to send a "petition" to the Grand Master and overcome a process of nobility, with much acting as notary and riders witnesses. The supplicant, that the aspiring knight, to document the birth of parents united in lawful marriage, and in places known as a noble city, have more than 17 years, the membership of all four of the ancestors to the noble class, have a significant heritage not be sentenced to prison terms and have always had, including avi, exemplary conduct. Valid as on the positions of honor and public, and his own family.
Once you have passed the trial proceeded with the habit of neocavaliere, the dignitary responsible for choosing the order went into the church for the ceremony, "struck the other a shoulder" and handed the sign, another knight offered his sword and two spurs gold to symbolize the military dress was to be his forever, until the funeral, then was cut by two knights. The riders had to profess vows: love, marital fidelity and obedience to superiors. Were required to undergo a strict discipline and hard training, as it should have led to values \u200b\u200bat the cost of sacrificing their own lives.

The campaigns saw the Order fighting alongside the English against the Ottomans, with the defense of Malta (1565).
participated with the Holy League at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) with twelve galleys under the papal insignia.
aid decision-Bona in Algeria, and after the recognition of military capabilities, the Order was employed against the Turks and Barbary pirates along the coasts of the Mediterranean.
date from this period a series of raids on the islands of the Aegean Sea, held by the Turkish campaigns in Dalmatia and Negroponte and the war in Corfu.

Following Ferdinand III of Lorraine rearrange the order giving the prevalence of diplomacy and trade agreements, rather than military action, they were limited to coastal defense. It dates back, however, this time to aid the Venetians against the Ottomans.
In 1809 l’Ordine fu soppresso dal governo napoleonico e ripristinato nel 1817.
Fu nuovamente soppresso nel 1859 da Bettino Ricasoli, presidente del consiglio dei ministri del regno d’Italia.
Tuttavia questa soppressione non fu accettata dalla dinastia dei Lorena in quanto, trattandosi di un ordine religioso consacrato dal papato, solo il papa poteva scioglierlo.

Oggi esiste ancora e l’attuale Gran Maestro è S.A.I. Sigismondo d’Asburgo Lorena, arciduca d’Austria, granduca titolare di Toscana dal 1993.

Piazza dei Cavalieri a Pisa


(Continua)

Polycistic Ovarian Fibrosis

Exaltation of Cosimo de Medici

Florence, falling to his glorious republic (1530), the field was the sigh of lost liberty, under the despotic government of the Duke Alessandro, which finally fell victim to a conspiracy.
Retreader Medici fortunes was the new duke, Cosimo (1537-1574), a young prince, who did not lack energy, political acumen and balanced enough to not abuse of absolute power. Cosimo clung to Charles V, and, in competition with the imperial troops, overthrew the freedom of Siena and absorbed much of its territory.
The regional unit of Tuscany, old aspirations of the City of Florence, so it was almost complete, AND NOT only small strips of the region. Cosimo gave the state a solid order absolutist: reorganized the administration and finances, strengthen the military organization, with wise initiatives promoted the economic development of the country, created a regional army, composed of local elements. Was entrusted with the safety of navigation, as well as the Duke's fleet, the Knights of St. Stephen, a religious order of chivalry, new foundation, which was located in Pisa in the sumptuous palace of Vasari, who still has the name of the Knights. In the struggle against the Barbary pirates, the Order acquired great merits in a constant vigilance on the seas and heroic actions of guerra.La reclamation of wetlands, construction of canals and other works utilities, the impetus given to industries, especially silk, Florence, Pisa, Siena, and their businesses, the first projects for the construction of the artificial port of Livorno, is the measure of vitality impressed by Cosimo to 'Tuscan economy. The government altogether wise and beneficial to him could overshadow his despotism and his many acts of tyranny.
The exaltation of the dignity of Grand Duke Cosimo by decree of Pope Pius V (1569) represented the recognition of the fervor with which he had promoted in its member the triumph of the ideals of the Catholic Reformation. The new title, then recognized by the emperor with a high monetary reward, gave the House of Medici a position of priority to all other Italian princes. Between Cosimo's successors, Ferdinand I (1587-1609) had the merit of having brought out the construction of the port of Livorno. To give the maximum increase in the port and the city, built from nothing you can say, the Grand Duke granted broad relief from customs duty, called a license in 1593, which was called the "Livornina, emigrated to live in other countries, regardless of nationality, race and religion: flocked in large numbers, then contributing to the fortunes of the new center Protestants and Jews. Under Ferdinand, Tuscany rested on the side of France. The Marriage of Maria, the nephew of the Grand Duke, and Henry IV of France, at a time in which this nation was recovering position in the field of international politics, had the value of a diplomatic note directed to free Tuscany from English protection.
Under the weak government of the last prince of the Medici family, which became extinct in 1737, Tuscany was devoid of any political importance, and accentuated the economic decline.

This song has been transcribed in full by drawing it, "Civilization and Society" course of history, "La Scuola Editrice, for the third class of technical schools - Fourth Edition 1964 - Chapter XIV.
My attention was attracted, and was concerned about this track, because it contains the excitement for the Knights of St. Stephen, and the excitement for Cosimo de Medici, the maker of the building, out of nowhere, the city of Livorno, for the ponderous presence of canals, Venice is also called the New . Clicking on it, you can also access the link to the Old Fort, also known as "Mastio of the Countess Matilda," as the first building of its ramparts dating back perhaps to the eleventh century (from the book Civilization and Society, above).
For a discussion of the topics mentioned here, you can find the blog of Sarcastycon3 accessing, browsing and then, where are described in detail previously unpublished.

What A Brzilian Wax Looks Like

Marco d'Aviano

Marco d'Aviano : Who was costui? Confesso la mia ignoranza, fino a ieri. Conoscevo quel nome, perchè a Milano, in zona Loreto-Padova, c'è una via a lui intitolata. Ma tutto lì. C'è voluto un imput da parte di Renzo Martinelli, per far si che iniziassi ad interessarmene. Renzo Martinelli è il regista brianzolo di Cesano Maderno, estimatore di Umberto Bossi. Nè dalla Rai, nè da altre reti televisive ne avevo mai sentito parlare prima, eppure, Marco D'Aviano è stato un personaggio di grande importanza per gli assetti dell'Europa moderna; al quale deve molto. Non se ne comprende, pertanto, la trascuratezza e la dimenticanza cui è stato fatto oggetto. Ed è sempre l'ardimentoso regista a ricordarci che Marco D'Aviano was, for Europe, a character far more important than what Joan of Arc was, and is for France. Proclaimed a saint in 1920 by Pope Benedict XV, Marco D'Aviano, which, among other things, miracles have been attributed to him still living, but it took the arrival of the papal throne of a foreign pope, the Polish Pope John Paul II, to ensure, to 304 years after his death, Marco D'Aviano was beatified in 2003.

Europe today would not be the same without the appearance on the European stage of the seventeenth century, Marco D'Aviano. European women were forced to dress in accordance with Koranic law; the Vatican would be the largest Islamic mosque, worth more than what became the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul , because Rome was to become the world center of Islam, and all our churches would now be reduced to the rank of madrasas and mosques.

This concept mentioned by Renzo Martinelli, during the television program on Rai 2, "What," on Saturday September 26. He was there to speak of his film, Barbarossa, the upcoming exhibition, scheduled for Oct. 9.

It 'was during this program, which also announced the production of his film on Marco D'Aviano, whose work will start next year 2010. The work will present great similarities with the film Barbarossa. In the latter is that the tiny population of Milan, coalizzatasi with that of other towns, stood before the army made mostly of farmers and laborers, all volunteers, poorly armed and badly equipped, but, full of courage and courage, defeated the imperial army of Frederick Barbarossa. In the case of the human story of Marco d'Aviano, the figure of an indomitable priest, dressed as a friar, born Carlo Domenico Cristofori was born in Aviano in 1631 and died in Vienna in 1699, which, alone, running to the Courts Europe, he managed to win the indifference of the powerful against Vienna, under siege from several months Ottoman turkish army, camped outside its walls, waiting to surrender by starvation. Marco D'Aviano succeeded with his plan to shake the torpor kings and princes of Europe, meaning, as they were, not to make any step in aid of Vienna. Marco D'Aviano coalition did so, those armies, making liberate Europe from the danger of a long and painful Ottoman domination. Europe was saved, and with it Christianity.

hatred that Muslims have towards Europeans and Westerners, all derived from their humiliating defeat. No other reason, not even on religious grounds is the thesis of Renzo Martinelli, on this issue.

With that defeat, the Turks Ottomans, who were counting on success in Vienna, to resume the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, interrupted by more than a century, had to abandon any ambition unrealistic. After that defeat, the Ottoman Turkey found itself embroiled in a growing and increasingly unmanageable economic crisis and military policy. It was thus started a period, which lasted more than two centuries, during which she was forced to deal with anything but not expansionist. Later, with the advent to power of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the father of modern Turkey, appeared on the scene at the beginning of political and military '900, Turkey began to open to European modernity. With the advent of Mustafa Kemal was so on the path to that slow change of mentality, which is still trying to lead Turkey towards modernity, and toward a full integration with Europe.

E 'to believe in them about this change?

E 'especially on this question mark face those for and against the entrance of Turkey into the EU.

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The Slavic terrorism in Venezia Giulia

TERRORISM IN SLAVIC VENEZIA GIULIA

As documented by, among other things, in Apollonio Almerigo study "La Venezia Giulia by the Habsburgs to Mussolini," if the union with Italy was warmly welcomed by the Italians , an absolute majority in the region, at the Slavic minority had not initially or accession, or hostility, but rather a state of waiting, but not driven by animosity against the new government. Indeed, the relief activities of the people, exhausted by war and fame, by the Italian army was highly appreciated by Slovenes and Croats.

The situation changed quickly for the work is not Italian, but to the Yugoslav (the Apollonius is very clear on this point). The Yugoslav government formed secret organizations, which have bases on its soil, but also branched inVenezia Giulia, devoted to agitation and propaganda against Italy and Italians. Their work meant that much of the Slavic population, previously non-hostile, it became, however, on the new state to which he belonged. In fact, right after the war, the Yugoslav government claimed the action of terrorists dedicated to the murder Slavs in the territory of Venezia Giulia.

A brief assessment of the magnitude of terrorism in Slavic Venezia Giulia can be given by the following list, largely incomplete, their steps: In the period 1920-1922 we have the following actions at the hands of murderous terrorists Slavs :-murder of Marshal of the Guardia di Finanza, Postiglione, the Royal Guard Giuffrida, the Plutino financier, the policeman Cecchin, Poldu of the Royal Guard, Lieutenant Spano and Sergeant Sessa, took place in Trieste-murder of the financier Stanganelli Postumiaassassinio happened to the Sergeant of Police took place in Ferrara Pola-soldier's murder occurred in Palmerindo CarnizzaA since 1924 , formally resolved the dispute between Italy and Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav state has a policy of duplicity, formally and officially recognizing the boundary agreed, secretly funding and supporting other terrorist groups. Which are the responsibility of the following:-to attack military posts of the Guardia di Finanza-Molini. Coterdasnizza and assault committed by a band of twenty armed men, from across the border attaccarono il corpo di guardia del valico confinario di Unez, uccidendone il comandante, il sottobrigadiere Lorenzo Greco.-Nell'aprile del 1926 fu attaccata a scopo di rapina la stazione ferroviaria di Prestrane, con uccisioni del ferroviere Ugo Dal Fiume e la guardia di finanza Domenico Tempesta.-Nel mese di luglio 1926 fu appiccato il fuoco ad un bosco del comune di Trieste-nel novembre 1926 avvenne un attentato dinamitardo alla caserma di San Pietro del Carso, con la morte di Antonio Chersevan, mentre rimasero gravemente feriti Francesco Caucich ed Emilio Crali.-Nella notte del 10 febbraio 1927, nelle vicinanze del castello di Raunach vi fu un'imboscata ad una pattuglia militare, con sparatoria in cui rimasero feriti Andrea Sluga e Francesco Rovina.-Nel maggio 1927 fu tesa, sulla strada tra Postumia e San Pietro del Carso, un'altra imboscata ad una di queste pattuglie, ed in essa rimase ferito il soldanto Cicimbri -il 29 dicembre del 1927 di quell'anno fu incendiato il Ricreatorio di Prosecco.-Nell'aprile del 1928, ancora a Prosecco, fu incendiata la scuola elementare, -nel maggio dello stesso anno fu incendiata quella di Cattinara e fu tentato l'incendio dell'asilo infantile dell'Opera Nazionale Italia Redenta di Tolmino.-Il 3 agosto 1928 ebbe luogo l’assassinio a tradimento della guardia municipale di San Canziano, Giuseppe Cerquenik.-nello stesso mese fu incendiato il ricreatorio della Lega Nazionale di Prosecco, -ai primi di settembre del 1928 fu incendiata la scuola di Storie-il 22 settembre 1928, a Gorizia, Coghelli students were killed and a soldier Ventin who tried to stop the murderess of Coghelli.-In January 1929 he was the devastation of the nursery school of Fontana del Conte, in March 1929, there was the assassination, to worms, Francesco Tuchtan. -In June 1929, there was the burning of the school Smogliani - in July 1929 was blown up the powder keg of Prosecco-in November 1929 was the robbery of post office-Ranzano in December 1929 there were the attempts killing of S. Curet Dorligo Valley and Francis Fonda.-guard in January 1930 there was the bombing of the Faro della Vittoria in Trieste, in February-was burned to the kindergarten-Corgnale always was assassinated in February to put the city Cruscevie Goffredo Blasina.-Il 10 febbraio ci fu l'attentato dinamitardo al Popolo di Trieste, in cui morì lo stenografo Guido Neri, mentre rimasero gravemente feriti i correttori di bozze Dante Apollonio, Giuseppe Missori ed il fattorino Marcelle Bolle.-Nel maggio del 1930 furono assassinati a San Dorligo della Valle i coniugi Marangoni-nei primi giorni del settembre 1920, in uno scontro a fuoco con dei terroristi sloveni che cercavano d'introdursi in regione, fu uccisa la guardia alla frontiera Romano Moise e il suo commilitone, Giuseppe Caminada, fu gravemente ferito.Si noti come questo elenco sia approssimato per difetto, sebbene presenti un bilancio impressionante per numero di azioni terroristiche e loro gravità. Ciò che rende particolarmente gravi le azioni these is the fact that they were the work of clandestine groups independent, but terrorist organizations created, controlled and organized by the Yugoslav state itself. Jugo-Slav state was pursuing a policy of duplicity, first officially recognizing the frontier obtained from Italy, it will form the nuclei armed terrorist, who had their headquarters in the territory of Yugo-Slav and were organized, trained, armed, led Yugoslav army Slavic. The use of such tools were not new at the Yugo-Slav state, which inherited a tradition of its own the Serbian, who had also served as terrorist organizations ("Black Hand" and “Mano Bianca”) per combattere la presenza asburgica in Bosnia-Erzegovina.Le associazioni terroristiche jugo-slave, che prendevano il nome di “Tigr” e “Barba”, malgrado avessero il loro impianto strutturale in Jugo-slavia e fossero costituite per lo più da jugo-slavi, pure avevano naturalmente anche ramificazioni in Venezia Giulia, ed ivi svolgevano con l’appoggio dei loro sodali anche un’intensa propaganda anti-italiana, affiancata agli atti terroristici. Il terrorismo jugo-slavo in Venezia Giulia, oltre alla sua intrinseca gravità, consente di meglio comprendere ciò che realmente accadde in quella che i nazionalisti slavi presentano come “persecuzione fascista”.L’incendio Hotel Balkan, presented by some as the ultimate act of fascist violence against the Slavs in Venezia Giulia, was responsible as the terrorists instead Yugo-Slavs. On 13 July 1920, following the anti-Italian violence of the Jugo-Slavs in Dalmatia, the Fascists staged a rally in Trieste. An Italian, Giovanni Nini, who had taken part in the demonstration and shouted phrases that supported the Italians of Dalmatia, was stabbed to death by unknown assailants, in all likelihood the Slavs, under the circumstances. A group of fascists then went to the Narodni Dom, but he found himself surrounded by more than 400 Italian soldiers, armed and deployed, and was forced to stop. However, it rained from the windows of Narodni Dom Italian soldiers on the left hand grenades and gunfire. The military, showy attacked, defended themselves by opening fire on the building. The fire broke out following the explosion of ammunition and explosives contained therein, as the Narodni Dom site of a clandestine military organization organized by the Yugoslav state to carry out attacks, violence and propaganda activity in Venezia Giulia. Were just the next firing of the weapons contained, totally illegally, in Narodni Dom to prevent firefighters rushed to extinguish the fire there. This is the true story of what is presented by the nationalist Slovenes themselves as the pinnacle and the ultimate expression of 'oppression fascist "Slavic residents in Italian territory. It was not a "fascist aggression" against a "cultural center", but a firefight between a detachment of the regular army and a group of Italian terrorists Jugo-Slav nested inside the building, who had thrown bombs hand and exploded against the military strikes. E 'to point out how the fire "Narodni Dom", which considered the pinnacle of "fascist violence", was actually the result of a clash between Italian soldiers, attacked, and Jugo-Slav terrorists, aggressors.

fascist violence will certainly were in Venezia Giulia, as throughout the rest of Italy, but the rear anti-Italian violence in Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia in 1918-1920, not to mention those of the Habsburg period, so the theory is dear to fall to the left that the Communist foibe exodus would be a reaction to the "fascist violence" itself. The truth is the opposite: the violence of fascism in Venezia Giulia (still not even remotely comparable to the work of Tito) were in response to violence emanating from and directed by the Yugoslav state. Also, do not you ever came to the creation of paramilitary units, organized, armed and trained by the army, intended to be used on Yugoslav territory for acts of terrorism, but what did the former Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav state was one which, with a contemporary terminology, it would be called a "rogue state", a "terrorist state". Therefore belongs to Yugoslavia the responsibility for certain forms of violence (indeed similar to those in the early 20's interested in the rest of Italy and much of Europe), as was the constitution and the activity of secret organizations and groups terrorist and dedicated by the Belgrade to stir up the Slavs in Venezia Giulia to set fire to an ethnic landscape hitherto largely peaceful.

Si noti comunque che, a prescindere da tali scontri, comunque di ben modesta entità e che coinvolsero un numero ridotto di membri delle diverse comunità etniche, i rapporti fra Italiani e Slavi in Venezia Giulia continuarono ad essere sostanzialmente pacifici e cordiale anche durante il periodo fascista.

Gli stessi fascisti non erano di solito oggetto di odio dagli Sloveni o dai Croati ivi residenti, quanto di una certa indifferenza, né si deve trascurare il fenomeno, minoritario ma di non piccole dimensioni, del cosiddetto “fascismo slavo”, ovvero di Slavi giulio-veneti che avevano aderito convintamente al movimento fascista stesso.

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L’INESISTENTE “PULIZIA ETNICA” FASCISTA IN VENEZIA GIULIA
I dati quantitativi dei censimenti della popolazione della Venezia Giulia, nei periodi che vanno dal 1880 al 1910 e dal 1910 al 1921, attestano come non sia avvenuta nessuna “pulizia etnica” fascista.
Per l’intera durata del primo periodo, la regione in questione fu sottoposta all'amministrazione austroungarica, mentre al termine del secondo ad essa si era sostituita, da soli tre anni, l'amministrazione italiana.
E’ ben noto come il governo asburgico perseguisse il progetto di “germanizzare e slavizzare” la Venezia Giulia, come anche la Dalmazia e l’Alto Adige, secondo le precise direttive di Francesco Giuseppe nel suo consiglio della Corona del 1866, and this is confirmed by the demographics of the period 1866-1918, on the one hand they see massive deportations of Italians, on the other Slavic immigration facilitated in every way, all accompanied by a policy of persecution against the Italians themselves from violence, change forced by a large number of names etc..
may be important to see whether the comparison between the statistics of the Austrian and Italian censuses indicating a similar operation by the new government through a difference between the Slovenian population census in 1910 and what was recorded in 1921. The findings emerge as the Slovenian population of Venezia Giulia, which in 1910 consisted of 326,794 units in 1921 had increased to 258,927, with a decrease of 67,867 units representing 26.6% of the total dates back to 1910.
However, it should be noted that, between the two dates for comparison, there was the First World War, with its 8.5 million soldiers who died, of whom at least 1.2 million of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to which were added in 1919, the effects of so-called "English flu". The epidemic of "English" inflicted solely to Italy a number of casualties than the entire world war, and led to scenes reminiscent of the plague-stricken Manzoni Milan, with patrols Monatti responsible for loading the dead. It came to prohibit the sound of the bells in mourning, to avoid giving the public an idea of \u200b\u200bthe scale mortality. This plague did not just massacre in Italy, but in Europe and worldwide. The severity of these events with regard to the Venezia Giulia is undeniable, if one takes into account how it was a war zone for almost the entire conflict and in particular had suffered the consequences of the English, causing debilitation of the population. The same absolute number of Italians living there, then apart from those immigrants, was decreased compared to that of 1910.
It is also true of the population movements that occurred during the period of 1918-1921 in Venezia Giulia, but they were volunteers, and due to economic reasons.
1] The Austrian Government had entered the region in its project "Germanize slavicized and [...] with energy and without any regard" (Minutes of the Board of the Austrian Crown 1866), officers, directors, military ethnic Austrian, Hungarian and Slovenian. Indeed, even the post office employees, the telegraph, railways and so on. were chosen preferably from among the Slovenes, and in compliance of the above mentioned project, and because these functions were thought to be of military importance. At the time of handover by the Austro-Hungarian Empire was that all these Italian people, of course, they lost their jobs: no country in the world would have kept officials, military, civil servants of another state, for more foreign and not originating in the Venezia Giulia, as temporary immigrants, both for reasons of loyalty (as it was possible to maintain the military, foreign officials and administrators?), and because the admission for a particular use is subject to specific requirements and knowledge other country to country.
As always happens whenever a territory passes from one state to another, of course, these people lost their jobs, so the majority decided to voluntarily return to their homelands. But those who wanted to stay (as is the case of some families of the tiny German nobility of Gorizia) it could do. It was a simple, routine and inevitable administrative measures, common to all states (Yugoslavia, for example, did the same on its territory), and not an "ethnic cleansing", because those who wanted to stay was vacated in Venezia Giulia. (They are very useful in this respect the considerations of H. Angermeier, " Königtum und Staat im deutschen Reich ", Munich 1954). Quite simply, such as Austria had used the services of its officers, directors, civil servants, military Venezia Giulia, as did Italy.
2] The only true migration for political reasons, not economic, the Venezia Giulia to Yugoslavia was that instead of a few thousand (less than 3000) of Slavic nationalists, who, even here of their own volition, moved immediately after the war in the newborn Kingdom of Yugoslavia, becoming beyond the border of the agitators, propagandists and terrorists of their nationalism in the Italian territory. Again you should not speak of "ethnic cleansing", because this move was voluntary, and involved a number plus a few thousand people (JA Brundage, "The genesis of the Wars: Mussolini and Pavelic ", London 1987 )
3] Yet, one should note as well as during the Fascist period has had an immigration of Slovenes from Slovenia to the Venezia Giulia: the Gardelles JL, French scholar, estimates that at least 20,000 to 25,000 Slovenes immigrarono in Venezia Giulia ed ivi presero stanzialmente residenza durante gli anni ’20 e ’30. (“ Histria et Dalmatia. Peuplements: essai de synthèse ”, “Journal of modern history”, VI (1980), pp. 143-214). Un simile fenomeno, accettato dal regime fascista, è incompatibile con l’idea di un progetto di “pulizia etnica”. Infatti, il censimento italiano del 1936 documentava come, pur rimanendo una netta maggioranza italiana, la percentuale di popolazione slava nella regione era cresciuta rispetto al censimento del 1921.
I diagrammi ed i dati dei censimenti dimostrano chiaramente ed inequivocabilmente la rappresentazione di come non ci sia stato alcun esodo da parte Slovenes at the end of the First World War. Compared to the 1910 census, the percentage of Slavs in the total population of Venezia Giulia was reduced by 6.5 percentage points above those for the causes.
However, compared to the 1921 census, the population of Slavs in Venezia Giulia was increased by more than 4 percentage points, mainly due to a migratory movement from Slovenia to Italy, which shows the lack of a mass expulsion of Slavs, being rather an increase compared to the Italian population. You must instead
detect the width of the brutal ethnic cleansing carried out by the Italian population in Slovenian Istria, where the percentage of the total Italian population population was reduced by 80 percentage points.

PS As to the charge of having Italianate names, this is only partially true. In fact, during the period 1866-1918 was the Habsburg regime slavicized to the Italian surnames, with the support of the clergy Slavic. The Italian rules were supposedly aimed at restoring the original form and corrected so slavicized Italian surname.
addition, there were other changes of the surname from Slavic to Italian, in some cases forced, in volunteers and other interested parties on request. The Apollonius points out that the majority of those who had such a change in the spelling of the surname in the post Second World War, although it could restore the Slavic form, they chose to keep the Italian one. On the contrary, the changes introduced by the imposition by the government did not meet Habsburg nell'onomastica accession no.
E 'can therefore say that in some cases occurred so Italianization of Slavic names against the wishes of the owners, but were limited to complex cases, as a rule it was the recovery of the original Italian form of the same name (by slavicized Austria) or a voluntary change.

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The Roman salute

The famous "Roman salute", performed by lifting the right arm extended and slightly bent, and showing the palm, which spread first in fascist Italy, then, with some variations, in many other countries authoritative era, such as Germany, Spain, Greece, and still used today in the sphere of right, has an origin issue.
Its adoption by the imitation of fascism came to salute made by the legionaries Fiume by D'Annunzio. The poet, a man of great culture and a lover of the classic that has been such a gesture which, in fact, the form of an ancient Roman salute. But it is not at all clear from texts such as the poet had drawn the idea of \u200b\u200bAbruzzo.
In truth, historians do not agree on the existence in Roman times of such a form of greeting, at least by military standards for encoded legionnaires or for the simple mores Quiriti. There are both literary sources, both iconographic, documenting the existence of certain forms of greeting, but must interpret them correctly and place them in specific social contexts of use.
The existence of a "salute" formalized appears highly likely based on some steps, as one of the De bello Africo Pseudo-Caesar, which referred to a military salutatio more. However, songs from the same content can be traced, for example, in De bello civilians in Vitae Cesarum of Suetonius, in Josephus and other authors even as Publilius Syrus. According to many
the historic Roman salute "classic", that taken by the Fascists, certainly existed in the period of the Punic Wars, and was practiced, (Carocci, Complete History of the Roman fascist regime in , Garzanti, 1999), with the right arm extended to ' height of the face. Another scholar, Rome has proposed a very interesting variation, as witnessed by some minor authors, Publilius Syros, in the Rome of Caesar. The legend wants introduced by Mario. It happened this way, as you have seen his right fist on his heart, and then extended his arm, at the height of the face.
There are numerous claims of such a form of greeting. the famous statue of the famous statue of the August of the Trasimeno Prima Porta, was the equally famous equestrian Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol. Some historians believe that the Anglo-Saxon equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, was originally located where now stands the Lateran Basilica, and then in front of the barracks of the equites singulares , to signify the same monarch who replied to the salute that the department was making the Trajan's Column depicts a rather salutatio emperor by the legions, in which all together milites greet the prince, raising his right arm fully extended. A virtually identical gesture appears in a funerary relief of Ephesus in the second century AD, in which the deceased, a soldier, greets his upper arm leaning forward and slightly bent, palms facing the master, all fingers together except the thumb extended. Moreover, some depictions on coins represent the same scene. Again, Josephus in his De bello Iudaica report as Legionnaires, cheering their commander, would rise three times in the right arm.
Other historians, however, point out that there is a discrepancy between the actions depicted in these figurative works, as in the three figures mentioned above, unlike the Column of Trajan and a few coins, the portrait does not see the hand gesture entirely relaxed, but only the index, lifted up, while the other fingers are usually slightly bent towards down. This, together with other factors, has led some scholars to believe that this gesture is that of ' adlocutio by which a speaker addresses his audience by starting the conversation, not a proper salute.
Others have proposed other alternative forms of military salute, respectively, raise your hand to the helmet on the top, similar to the modern military salute (documented by two surveys, including the famous one of Domitius Enobarbus) and lead the right hand to fist over the heart.
addition, there are many historians who doubt the existence of a genuine salute encoded in Roman times, and interpret various gestures reported above, except the ' adlocutio but was typical of' orator, such as informal expressions, similar to that still waved in the West, and elsewhere, is accomplished by raising an arm to a friend.
Another exception must be made to the "gladiatorial salute" carried clutching his forearms, which is believed to be the equivalent of the handshake is now known, and that was the informal greeting and camaraderie of the legionaries, (or gladiator ?), and the simple vires.
A modest opinion of the undersigned, the frequency with which the iconography indicates the salus iuvare with his right arm raised and the palm turned in front of him, in accordance with the testimony of literary texts on a specific salutatio between legionnaires, suggests that a gesture very similar to the "Roman salute" actually existed, at least in the military. The continuity of such claims through the centuries and in different periods, from Republic to Empire, is a further endorsement of that ipotesi.Prove definitive and absolutely certain of the veracity of this theory do not exist, however, this hypothesis is that the lectio probabilior between the various conflicting.

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The Italian Army in the Balkans in World War II Forgotten

A commonplace of some communist and pro-communist propaganda, and more generally some currents of anti-Italian vulgate journalism, is accused of "war crimes" the work of the Italian Army in Yugoslavia during World War II.
Those who spread such rumors are frequently motivated by a twofold ideological intent. The first course is to denigrate and demean Italian history, as has been systematically left in the historiography of the past 60 years. The second is instead to justify and legitimize the invasion of Italian territory, genocide and ethnic cleansing carried out by Tito, amputation from the mother country in the region of Venezia Giulia.
would be easy to answer these accusations by pointing out how the Slavs from the time of their invasion of the Balkans in the seventh century AD C., have carried out a genocide of the local Latin population, and have gradually spread to Latin and Italian territories of Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia, later with the support of the secular enemy of Italy, the house of Habsburg, who was pursuing a policy blatantly pro-Slavic and anti-Italian. We should remember the killings and violence against Italians continue for centuries, the draft of Franz Joseph and Germanize slavicized Alto Adige, Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia, [1] the expulsion of tens and tens of thousands of Italians from Trieste and Istria to top Twentieth century, [2] imprisonment in the Austrian camp of over 100,000 Italian civilians Austrian subjects, [3] violation of their civil and political rights under colonial rule Habsburg [4] government and inciting to the Slavs to persecute the Italians, they were envious of the greater economic, social and cultural. Already
only this would in itself be sufficient to respond to certain allegations pretestuosse, showing that in fact for 1300 years, the Italians were persecuted by the invading Slavs, only arrived in the Balkans in the seventh century asiatiche.Tuttavia directly from the steppes, it is fully possible to answer attacks against l’operato dell’Esercito italiano in Jugoslavia nel 1941-1943, mostrando come esso sia stato fondamentalmente corretto, ed anzi sotto un certo aspetto esemplare.



1. LA JUGOSLAVIA DECIDE NEL 1941 DI ENTRARE IN GUERRA CONTRO L’ITALIA
2. L’ATTACCO DELLA GUERRIGLIA CONTRO IL REGIO ESERCITO ED I CRIMINI DI GUERRA DEI PARTIGIANI SLAVI
3. L’OPERATO ANTI-GUERRIGLIA DELL’ESERCITO ITALIANO
4. LA DIFESA DELLE POPOLAZIONI CIVILI DALL’AZIONE DEI PARTIGIANI
5. IL GIUDIZIO DEGLI SLOVENI SULL’OCCUPAZIONE ITALIANA. DUE VISIONI OPPOSTE
6. BIBLIOGRAFIA
7. CONCLUSIONE



1. LA JUGOSLAVIA DECIDE NEL 1941 DI ENTRARE IN GUERRA CONTRO ITALY
In honor of the historical truth, it should immediately recall how was not Italy declared war on Yugoslavia and to attack, but the opposite.
Although Yugoslavia was the main architect of the missing Italian territorial claims after the First World War, had made an ethnic cleansing of Italians in Dalmatia and had fomented terrorism in Venezia Giulia, Rome's government tried to establish a diplomatic link cooperation and friendship with the government in Belgrade with the help of the Minister Stojadinovic, in 1937 was signed by the two governments even a non-aggression pact, a true friendship treaty with Italy undertook to respect the territorial integrity of Yugoslavia.
As a result of diplomatic negotiations, Yugoslavia, March 25, 1941, completed the number of nations participating in the Balkan Pact Trpartito becoming a de facto ally of the Axis. No formal request was made by the Axis in Yugoslavia, but Yugoslavia had secret conversations go to war against Greece, in support of Italy, getting in return the coveted outlet to the Aegean Sea with the annexation of the port of Thessaloniki. Promptly the British government was able to organize the day after a coup led by Air Force chief, General Simovic. The regent Paul was sent into exile, the head of governo arrestato, Pietro (il re fanciullo come definito da Londra) saliva al trono.Churchill il 27 marzo in un discorso proclamava: L’Impero Britannico ed i suoi alleati faranno causa comune con la nazione jugoslava. Noi continueremo a marciare e faremo in comune tutti gli sforzi fino al raggiungimento della vitoria.”
Fra UK e Jugoslavia si stringeva un patto politico e militare, il che equivaleva a dire che la Jugoslavia entrava ufficialmente in guerra contro le potenze dell’ “Asse”, mentre al contempo mobilitava l’esercito. Alla Jugoslavia gli inglesi offrirono subito un premio per la sua entrata in guerra al loro fianco, sarà l’Istria, Fiume e Zara.
Oltre ad aver infranto l’alleanza signed with the Axis, and to be factual and legal entry into the war against Germany and Italy through its political and military alliance with the United Kingdom, Yugoslavia itself opened hostilities by attacking first in Zadar (a city that belonged to Italy since the end of World War I, since the fighting began March 28, the day after the coup in Belgrade, the Yugoslav attack the forces of General Emilio Giglioli) and in northern Albania, in which Italian troops were stationed.
The Italo-Yugoslav war was therefore caused by Yugoslavia, which:
-broken friendship treaty exists independently with Italy, following a coup orchestrated by London-
signed a treaty of political and military alliance with the United Kingdom, at war with Italy and Germany, and in doing so in fact and in law in declaring war on Rome and Berlin-
attacked first, on Zara
The conflict in Albania and Italy and Yugoslavia, with the defeat of Yugoslavia and the invasion of its territory, it was simply a consequence of the aggression Yugoslav Italy. remains the undeniable fact that Yugoslavia was to go to war to Italy (and Germany), in alliance with England and in exchange for his cooperation, the promise of Italian territories .



2. GUERRILLA ATTACK AGAINST THE ROYAL ARMY AND WAR CRIMES OF Slavic partisans

2.1 The initial good reception of the Italian troops and the beginning of the insurgency by communist
As you know, having entered the war on Yugoslavia against Italy and Germany, the conflict resulted in the rapid defeat of the Slavic state, due to causes not only military but also political. In fact, it was based entirely on ethnic Serb dominance over all others, so as to have become the official name of "Kingdom of Serbs". At the time of military conflict fought effectively only the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and deserted in massa e non opposero alcuna resistenza agli Italo-Tedeschi.
Inizialmente, i rapporti fra governo italiano e Sloveni furono decisamente positivi, ed assolutamente non ostili. Mussolini decise di organizzare la Slovenia occidentale, sotto amministrazione italiana, in una provincia autonoma, unica in tutta Italia, unita sì al resto dello Stato, ma appunto provvista di ampia autonomia e forme di auto-governo.
Si manifestò da subito il fenomeno politico e culturale detto del “belogardismo”, con ciò intendendo l’alleanza filo-italiana degli Sloveni anti-comunisti, contraddistinta da una mentalità cattolica e conservatrice, sviluppati nella provincia autonoma di Lubiana fra il 1941 e il 1943 e tale da rappresentare for the entire period of the Italian presence is a huge phenomenon quantitatively.
Among those who adhered to the "belogardismo" may indicate the former Prime Minister of Slovenia, Marko Natlacen, together with two other former ministers, the mayor of Ljubljana Ivo Adlesic, the rector of the University of Ljubljana, Slavic, 105 Slovenian mayors, but the real leader of this movement was the archbishop of Ljubljana Gregorij Rozman, still popular among Slovenes.
conservatism and Catholicism, both the prevailing political culture in Slovenia at that time, joined to hostility toward the Serbs, who had imposed their hegemony in the kingdom of Yugoslavia, Italian fascist government in obtaining the consent of most of the Slovenian population.

2.2. The start of the partisan as a result of the German attack the USSR. War crimes of the partisans
a situation almost completely quiet in the Italian territories, followed, after June 21, 1941, the beginning of the communist partisans. The international communist movement had been pro-Nazi since the time of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, facilitated in every way the work of Hitler, following the precise instructions of Stalin. All this changed abruptly with the outbreak of war between Germany and USSR, so also in Slovenia and Dalmatia appeared communist guerrillas. Oliva explains the fact that "the troops [Italian] have moved in reaction to these attacks and, in turn, have not been determined by the hardness of employment, but from domestic and international factors independent of the behavior of the Royal army "[Gianni Oliva," It kills too little ", Milano 2006, p. 135] How was Yugoslavia to attack Italy in 1941, just after the Communist partisans were the first to attack Italian troops in Slovenia and Dalmatia.
Also, right now, the partisans were responsible for repeated and serious violations of the laws of war. Giorgio Rochat, certainly the most historic military after Italian Piero Pieri, and more competent with regard to the Second World War, focused also on the Balkan war of Italy in his monograph "The Italian Wars 1935-1943. To defeat the Empire of Ethiopia "(Turin 2005). First, the
Rochat provides a framework within which the Italian troops, which is classic of a regular army units opposed to irregular
"The first thing to note is that all regular armies have difficulties in understanding and addressing a partisan war. The institu-tion as a legitimate military monopoly of organized violence-ta al servizio dello Stato, quindi ricerca la massima potenza di­struttiva consentita dallo sviluppo degli armamenti per un con­flitto programmato contro forze analoghe degli Stati nemici. I suoi codici di valore sono orientati a questo tipo di conflitto, definirlo «cavalleresco» sarebbe eccessivo, ma tutti gli eserciti regolari ac­cettano alcune regole di massima come il rispetto del nemico feri­to o che si dà prigioniero (non fosse che per ovvie esigenze di re­ciprocità) e dei civili, fino a quando restano civili, ossia non par­tecipano ai combattimenti. […] La cultura e l'addestramento di un esercito regolare vanno però in crisi quando si trova a occupare a hostile country with a resistance of the people, where every civilian is a potential enemy, and is faced with a guerrilla war conducted according to rules that tactical and codes of conduct different from 'regular'. [...] So it tends to resort to brutal solu-tions (executions, destruction of villages, deportations) "[Ibid, p. 366]
In other words, Rochat recalls how the Royal Army found itself having to face opponents who did not respect the laws of war: the systematic killing of prisoners, torture, terrorist attacks etc..
To give an idea of \u200b\u200bhow to conduct the war, very few are enough quotations from the olive, for some episodes of war: "Tens and tens of mi-litari Italians were left with broken limbs, castrated, their eyes enucleated [...] When our troops were able to return to the scene of the fight, they were able to see that the wounded were sevi-financed: all stripped naked, some castrated, the collar beams embedded in the eye, then slaughtered all [...] 1 rebels attacked furiously on the wounded, the worst they opened the abdomen by removing the viscera-there, the lighter the head smashed hammer and then threw the bodies into a well eighty feet deep. "[Gianni Oliva," It kills too little, "Milan 2006,], so-called “partigiani” secondo le leggi di guerra dell’epoca non potevano “ essere considerati legittimi belligeranti, ma franchi tiratori e come tali tratta­ti” Ciò avveniva per una serie precisa di ragioni: “1 ) non avevano possesso stabile di territorio, né erano insorti contro di noi al momento del­l'occupazione della Jugoslavia; 2) non facevano capo ad un governo responsabile né, per motto tempo, apparten­nero ad un'organizzazione unica; 3) erano sudditii di uno Stato che aveva concluso con noi un armistizio; 4) non portavano uniformi né, spesso, distintivo visibile a di­stanza; 5) non sempre portavano le armi apertamente; 6) non sempre respect the laws and customs of war; 7) for a long time were not recognized as legitimate refrigerants beautiful-even by the United Nations, who knew that qualification instead to re-Chetniks. " [Note of the Italian General Staff, quoted in Oliva, cit., P. 110]
Certain forms of conduct of the war carried out by the "partisan" as the attacks on treason, the bombings, killings of prisoners, the torture inflicted on them etc.. were and still are, contrary to the laws of war. The characters of the counter-insurgency and then the Italian armed forces were a reaction to the criminal actions of partisans, made contrary to the laws of war.
Italian anti-guerrilla operations were therefore a result of the attack is made against the Royal Army by Communist partisans, and due to international factors, both independent of his work, both the partisans of war crimes.




3. The counter-insurgency operations ITALIAN ARMY

1. Roatta instructions. Classical rules of counter-insurgency, in accordance with the laws of war
The instructions given by Roat, commander of Italian troops in Yugoslavia, were simple and trivial the anti-guerrilla warfare. Quoting from the still Rochat:
"The long circular issued on 1 March 1942 by General Roat-ta [...] Is a comprehensive collection of instructions for 1'occupazione and counter-insurgency, and a strong appeal to more fighting troops, the larger document that we know about these issues, it deserves some attention "[Ibid, p . 368]
The instructions are defined by Rochat as "elementary", being in the teaching of any school of war:
"assumes a very low level of training of troops and, above all, to the paintings (the particulars are elementary, the teaching in any school official) and tries to bring it rhymes with-god pages and pages of instructions. "[ibid, p. 368]
Roatta The rules included:
1) the execution of partisans
2) the use of reprisals on civilians
3) the destruction of homes of those who supported the partisans
4) internment of those who supported the partisans
5 ) had to avoid hitting churches, schools, hospitals, public works, and there was no need to resort to indiscriminate bombing of villages
Rochat Comment on: "They are the classic rules dell'antiguerriglia, applied in all the wars simultaneously, with obvious variations and some restric-tion previous centuries. "[ibid, p. 369]. Of Gianni Oliva has the same opinion: "There has been a repressive policy of the Royal army, similar to that occupying armies of every nation (including democratic ones), implement in an enemy country [...] where you develop a guerrilla variously supported by civilian population "[Gianni Oliva," It kills too little ", Milano 2006, p. 8]
instructions provided Roatta fact what was contained in the anti-guerrilla armies of all the belligerents era, including the American one. addition, they were fully in compliance to the same laws of war then existing , which allowed the execution of irregular combatants, retaliation and internment of civilians guilty of union with irregular units.
As shown clearly, the guidelines of this general are not planning any systematic extermination of the civilian population, but they were only the purpose of suppressing guerrilla activity. The absence of a plan to kill or even expulsion of the inhabitants, as such, is also shown by the directives to save churches, schools, hospitals, public works, and not to use carpet bombing of villages.

2. The assessment of the level of hardness Rochat counter-insurgency operations
The Rochat has no doubt that the Italian troops acted in the conflict in a less harsh of all other contenders. First, they fought with lack of determination:
"All indications say that the Italian troops faced the war with little enthusiasm and participation, is an indirect testimony to the need to renew the command re-petutamente directives rigor" [Ibid , p. 370]
Above all, the Royal Army was, of all those involved in the Balkan war, certainly the less fierce, so that these excesses were the work of individual actions or individual departments, rather than the norm:
"RONMENT It should be noted that co- in a war with an extraordinary level of atrocities and massacres by both sides, the Italian troops was certainly less ferocious-Rono '. Even the hardest of the co-send orders placed restrictions on reprisals, such as respect for women and children. And the repression was carried out with a high rate of executions and devastation, massacres and brutality without com-Piute other belligerents, including Germany. Also note if the between-round Roat: "You know very well that over-reaction-tion, made in good faith, will never be prosecuted," should re-conduct the defense of comrades attacked, not for counterinsurgency operations, not Directives can be compared to Hitler-it endorsing a priori any excess or massacre committed by Nazi troops. there were certainly excesses, but initiatives for individual departments or smaller, not as a rule of conduct of operations . "[Ibid, pp. 370-371]
This view is presented by Gianni Oliva: "On the military side, there is certainly a substantial difference between the army and the Royal Werhmacht . For German strategy, systematic terror is the central tool of policy of occupation [...] The violence of the Royal army, by contrast, is a defensive reaction in the face of partisan attacks [...] The comparison with the brutality of German is therefore impossible, both quantitative and qualitative terms to "[" It kills too little ", Milano 2006, p. 7] A Oliva explains that as there had been a flight of German civilians from Slovenia to the Italian one, because the Italian occupation was milder than that of Germany [ibid, p. 124]
Besides, if some abuses occurred on one side by individual departments or children between combat troops (as happens in virtually every conflict), other units applied gently to the instructions received anti-insurgency, often refusing to perform orders.

3. The conduction Italian Field
As for the internment of civilians, they had the sole purpose of conducting away from the theater of war guilty of aiding members to the "partisan", as explained above, and is fully embedded in anti-OPERATIONS SHALL guerrillas. The instructions did not provide all the killing of these civilians, and deaths that occurred as a result of malnutrition or disease were not due to a preconceived plan, but due to neglect and administrative incapacity. This is a very frequent case, in fact quite common in the prison camps and the internment of the entire first half of the twentieth century.
Among the extensive documentation available, you can use for example allo studio di James Bacque “Gli altri lager”, edito da Mursia: ad esempio, il tasso di mortalità dei campi di prigionia francesi per Tedeschi nella seconda guerra mondiale fu quasi del 40%, non in conseguenza di un piano deliberato di sterminio, ma per negligenza, incuria, scarsità di fondi ecc.
Per fare un solo confronto, il tasso di mortalità medio dei lager austriaci per Italiani nella prima guerra mondiale fu del 25%, mentre nel caso del campo italiano di Arbe, decisamente il più alto fra tutti i campi italiani per Slavi, esso si aggirò sull’8,8% (1700 perdite circa, su di una popolazione calcolata dal Centro Wiesenthal nell’ordine circa 15.000 unità). Insomma, il tasso di mortalità average of the Austrian concentration camp for Italian prisoners in World War was three times the highest mortality rate recorded in the camps for Italians in Slovenia in World War II.
The Italian-led field was indeed much higher capacity than usual period, so that the majority of the total deaths due to living conditions in places of internment be found precisely in Rab (1700 on just over 2000): with few exceptions, almost all other areas intended for Italians Slavs were not victims of malnutrition or disease outside of those natural causes, an outstanding result for the period, much better than those of American prison camps, not that di quelli tedeschi o sovietici.



4. LA DIFESA DELLE POPOLAZIONI CIVILI DALL’AZIONE DEI PARTIGIANI
L'esercito italiano in Jugoslavia, oltre alle operazioni belliche contro i guerriglieri locali, costituì un valido strumento di protezione delle popolazioni locali dalle violenze dei “partigiani” titini e degli ustascia Croati.
Per rimanere solo alla Slovenia, la schiacciante maggioranza degli abitanti non era affatto filo-comunista, e risultava anzi vittima dell'operato dei partigiani comunisti stessi, che massacravano gli avversari politici e depredavano le popolazioni, non diversamente da quanto accadeva in Italia ad opera dei loro “compagni” della “Resistenza”. The Royal army represented a defense for civilians even before the partisans of Tito, whose work was extremely violent and oppressive, "Apart from the cops-tion of food and cattle in the civilian population was subject, those who were deemed beneficial to the busy- , re were treacherously murdered along with their fami-lies, whole villages were looted and burned, ex-works, mines, sawmills, farm equipment, schools and churches were burned or destroyed, men were forced to ar-roles in the bands, young women were kidnapped. " (Note of the Italian General Staff, quoted in Oliva, cit., P. 145). The activities of Italian defense of the civilian population from violence and exceeds the so-called "partisan" found the alliance of many Slavs who preferred to fight together against the Italians instead, enlisting in the "MVAC", "Anti-Communist militias." In Dalmatia
then prevailed a state of "bellum omnium contra omnes" (Ustasha, Chetniks, Communists), where you slaughtered each other: the Italian military presence often protected the civilian population, an easy target of the hostility of "guerrillas." The Germans accused the Italian allies of 'clear and continuous pro-ve of sympathy "towards the Serbs and the ve-Jews who protected nivano dalle persecuzioni degli ustascia e aiutati a trasferirsi coi loro beni nella zona italiana.
E’ importante al riguardo il lavoro dell'ebreo dàlmata Menachem Shelah: "Un debito di gratitudine Storia dei rapporti tra E.I. e gli ebrei in Dalmazia (1941 - 1943)". Il Menachem, originario della Dalmazia ed in seguito divenuto professore di storia contemporanea all’università di Gerusalemme, spiega come il Regio Esercito salvò una moltitudine di ebrei dàlmati (oltre 10.000), che altrimenti sarebbero stati massacrati dagli ustascia. Non soltanto gli Ebrei furono salvati dal Regio Esercito, ma anche un gran numero di Serbi, scampati alle stragi degli ustascia grazie alla protezione offerta dall’esercito italiano.
The defense of civilians against violence committed by Italian communists and Ustasha is a well known fact. This included even as the oil: "Italian troops intervened to quell the strife between local factions in conflict, and to put an obstacle to the violence of the Ustasha regular and irregular-ri that was raging against the Serbian Orthodox population and the Jews "[...] In Croatia, particu-larly, the direct action of our authorities to curb the violence of the Ustasha, and aroused a feeling of gratitude on the part of the Serb population, exacerbated the item and the Croatian government, influenced by Germans, who saw evil eye of the protection accorded by Italy to the Serbs and Chetniks "(Note of the Italian General Staff, quoted in Oliva, cit., pp. 110-111).



5. THE TRIAL OF ITALIAN SLOVENIAN EMPLOYMENT. Two opposite views
What is the opinion of Italian Slovenes employment? It is ambivalent and terminated in two opposing views together. The historical memory to more than 60 years after the Second World War still continues to divide the Slovenian nation, as well as others, including Italian.
Slovenia is born as an independent state in 1991, separating from Yugoslavia, including through a deep appreciation of its historical memories. The conception of its past 45 years proposed by the totalitarian communist state founded by Tito did not apply to the new republic of Slovenia, both for the differences in constitutional principles, both for its own offer itself as an autonomous state of Slovenes, instead of the Yugo-Slavs, the so-called "South Slavs".
This historical review has inevitably involved the Second World War and the civil war that has divided them among the Slovenes, among supporters of the USSR on the one hand, the other Axis allies.
in Slovenia are still facing today, two opposing historical memories. The first, represented by the left nostalgic for Tito, interprets what has happened in Slovenia in the period 1941 - 1945 as a so-called "war of liberation from foreign occupiers and with the resistance against the" collaboration "of" Bela Garda "(the" White Guard "Slovenian) and domobranci, supported by the Slovenian Church and an ally of the Italo-Tedeschi.
The other historical memory instead considers the events of the war as a civil war between Slovenes in which the main responsibility should be attributed to communism and his revolution. The Church and those who opposed Soviet communism would then be on the right side in their alliance with Italian and German. While nostalgic for Tito dwell on the work done by the Germans, Italians and Slovenians by their enemies, the supporters of belagardisti remember the massacres perpetrated by the partisans during the war and especially after. according to the current center-right Slovenian should be fully rehabilitated and re-evaluated all the fighters and anti-anti-Communist partisans, Axis allies (as, mutatis mutandis , the soldiers in Italy was allied with the Germans CSR) that should be granted all the rights and awards granted in the past to Tito. A law passed a few years since the Slovenian government is an expression of that view, acknowledging the status of combatants for the country of Slovenia to the "domobranci" and "belagardisti" allies of the Germans and Italians: it is as if Italian soldiers of the RSI had received the same official recognition of the partisans. Character
particularly dear to the "revisionist" Slovenia was the bishop of Ljubljana Rozman, top political supporter of the "White Guard" of Slovenia, supports the presence of German and Italian-made founder of straze Vaske (village guards), military units wire from which it sprang-fascist "Bela Garda." This prelate was convicted of "collaboration" by a court Tito, but now the right-wing parties and the Church itself Slovenia have requested, and finally obtained, which was officially restored through a retrial. The Judgement of
large part of the Slovenian population for the war of 1941-1945 is so favorable to belagardisti domobranci and the allies of the Italo-Tedeschi, rather than Tito.
The same attitude of public authorities, after the Communist dictatorship of Yugoslavia and the independence of Slovenia, is very different from the past about what during the communist rule, respectively, were defined as "collaboration" and "war of liberation."
Even in the field of Slovenian historians, no longer under the authority of the Communist regime, there was a thorough review of past history . E 'pioneering about the work of Bogdan Novak, Trieste, 1941-1954. The ethnic, political and Ideological Struggle , Chicago-London, 1970, translated into Italian with the title Trieste 1941-1954. The political struggle, ethnic and ideological , Milan, Murcia, 1973.Bogdan Novak is a Slovenian exile in the U.S., whose work that was published in 1970, also has the undoubted merit of at least 20 years ahead of the trend of the historiography Slovenia to reconsider the modalities and the nature of the regime Tito.La new availability of records, permitted by the establishment of a democratic regime in Slovenia after independence, and the very possibility of a "revision" of history, concessa dalla fine del sistema autoritario comunista, hanno condotto numerosi storici Sloveni a concordare ampiamente, sulla base della documentazione e delle testimonianze in lingua slovena, con molte valutazioni cui gli storici italiani erano pervenuti in precedenza, sulla base delle proprie fonti. Per un rapidissima sintesi sul “revisionismo storico” sloveno, cfr. Tone Ferenc, La storiografia sulla seconda guerra mondiale in Slovenia dopo il rivolgimento politico del 1990 , pp. 139-144; Milita Kacin, Appunti sull'attuale storiografia slovena , entrambi in "Storia contemporanea in Friuli", a. XXII, n. 23, 1992, pp. 147-157
Si può quindi rimarcare come sia nella coscienza della maggioranza dell'attuale popolazione slovena, sia degli storici sloveni stessi, il giudizio verso l'esercito italiano ed i suoi alleati locali sia tutt'altro che negativo. Tale atteggiamento di condanna si ritrova invece presso i nostalgici del comunismo.


6. BIBLIOGRAFIA
Si riporta qui un’elementare e ridottissima bibliografia, a cui naturalmente devono essere aggiunti l’Oliva ed il Rochat, precedentemente citati..
Sono utili per affrontare la tematica dei conflitti nell’area jugoslava in una prospettiva di ampio respiro le seguenti opere:
Katrin Boeck, “Von den Balkankrieg zum Ersten Weltkrieg. Kleinstantenpolitik und ethnische Selbstbestimmung auf dem Balkan”, München 1996
Béla Kiràly-Dimitrije Djordjevic, "East Central European Society and the Balkan Wars", New York 1987
On the origins of the war in Yugoslavia, cf. Andreas Hillgruber also the classic, "The military strategy of Hitler", foreword by R. de Felice, Milano 1986, pp. 513-521, 542-543
Specifically WWII Nazi invasion:
Dietrich Orlow, "The Nazis in the Balkans. A Case Study of totalitarian Politics ", 1968 Pittsburgh
Seckendorf Martin," Die Okkupationspolitik des deutschen Faschismus in Jugoslawien, Griechenland, Albanien, Ungarn und Italien (1941-1945), Berlin-Heidelberg 1992
regard to loss of life due to war together internal and external, which occurred in Yugoslavia in 1941-1945 (ie, excluding what Tito did after the war, with the "ethnic cleansing" in Carinthia, Vojvodina, and Dobruja Venezia Giulia and the gulag and the huge massacres which involved ex-combatants nationalist "bourgeois", church, etc.., which we discussed earlier), there is no precise figure, even if it is evaluated regularly above the one million deaths. Dusan
Breznik proposed 1,100,000 victims.
Paul Mayers and Arthur Campbell in "The population of Yugoslavia" (Washington 1954) speak of 1,067,000 victims
Bogoljub Kočević instead fallen
The work suggests 1,014,000 Vladimir Zerjavic "Jugoslavija-manipulacije zrtvama drugog svjetskog rata (Zagreb 1989) estimated a total of 1,027,000 Yugoslavs died.
The figure of over a million dead, very high in proportion to the population of Yugoslavia, Tito and further enhanced by the subsequent massacres of the conflict (not calculated by Zerjavic) was mainly due to the civil war between the peoples of the South Slavs. According to the U.S. Senate committee on war crimes in Yugoslavia during World War II, only the Serbs killed by Croats oscillate in a figure of between 300,000 and 500,000 (most likely closer to the possibility that the first second).
For comparison, the same Senate committee in 8111 indicates the Yugoslavs died due to military actions of the Italians. According to the Zerjavic, the number of Yugoslavs died at the hands of the Italians would be instead of about 15,000, so the 1, 5% of the total.



7. CONCLUSION

1) Italy not attacked Yugoslavia, but on the contrary it was attacked, having been the military regime in Belgrade to have signed an alliance formal political and military with the United Kingdom, becoming de jure and de facto at war with Italian and German states. The Italian occupation of the territories of Yugoslavia and the subsequent effects of the attack Yugoslav conflict are then to Italy.
2) Also, initially the relationship between Italians and Slovenes were relaxed. The origin of the outbreak of clashes stemmed from the communist guerrillas, independent of the Italian authorities and due to the war between Germany and USSR. Again, the same repressive operations of the Italian army was a direct consequence of the criminal (as marked by serious and willful violations of the laws of war) of Tito. Italian anti-guerrilla actions occurred as a result of and in response to the war crimes of the "partisan".
3) Moreover, the Italian military occupation of part of Yugoslavia consisted of normal counter-insurgency operations, carried out according to traditional criteria. They were less ferocious than those carried out by the other contenders in the Balkan conflict, and tried to spare the civilian population. The same Italian-run camps was quite good in relation to the period, and higher than that of those American POW camps.
Some excesses were the work of individuals or small units, which happens in every war, however, the instructions of Roat and the work of the great majority of the units were in accordance with the laws of war then in force.
4) The Italian army is also a good protection for the civilian population against the carnage and the violence perpetrated by "partisan" Tito and the Croatian Ustashi, incomparably higher than those of the Royal Army.
5) The majority of Slovenian population today is anti-titin and rather inclined to a positive view towards those who were once defined as "collaborators", allies of the Germans and Italians. The massacres and violence of "Tito" committed against the Slovenians outclass those of the Axis forces and their local allies.








[1] An objective assessment of the true nature of the Habsburg Empire, founded on the principle of ethnic hegemony of the element of Austria, may be made by recalling the decision of the imperial verbalization expressed in the Council of Ministers November 12, 1866, held under the presidency of the Emperor Franz Joseph. The minutes of the meeting reads: "His Majesty expressed the exact order you to act decisively against the influence of Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown, and occupy appropriate places of public employees, courts, teachers as even with the influence of the press, operating in South Tyrol, Dalmatia, and on the coast for the Germanization of these territories and slavicized depending on the circumstances, with energy and without regard "The government decision, taken at the level from 'Emperor Francis Joseph and the his counsel, to proceed with the Germanization of the regions population and slavicized Italian, Alto Adige, Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia, "with energy and without any respect", states unequivocally the discriminatory and oppressive nature of the Hapsburg Empire against the Italian minority : Remember, however, that this is just one example among many of the anti-Italian policy in Austria. The policy of denationalization, hunted and real cleansing pursued by the Habsburgs to the detriment of the Italians (including the examples, many, should be recalled almost total extermination of Ladin in the lands invaded by so-called "South Tyrol" means Ladin, neo-Latin race there from the earliest inhabitant latinizzatosi antiquity and during the Roman period, were almost destroyed by the invasion of Austria, so that today it survives only a small minority in lands populated entirely by them in the past), then corresponded to that of the first royalist Yugoslavia, Tito then.
[2] This happened with the so-called "decrees Hohenhole", named after the Austrian governor of Venezia Giulia, Prince of Hohenhole, which issued them.
[3] in particular that of Notorious Katzenau, where thousands and thousands died of hunger, disease, starvation, Italians imprisoned there.
[4] Attilio Tamaro documented in "The conditions of Italian subjects of Austria in Venezia Giulia and Dalmatia "and Joseph Prague in" History of Dalmatia